The Domestication Of Wild Animals History Essay

The Domestication Of Wild Animals History Essay The Fertile Crescent has been called the Cradle of Civilization for many years. The Cradle of Civilization is the key to understanding when the human population began to thrive and create villages, cities, and ultimately states. Without the domestication and cultivation of the land there would have never been enough food to support such a dense population of people. Hunting and collecting entirely from the wild could not possibly support even a tiny fraction of the worlds current population (Bellwood, 1). There were seven core domesticates in the Fertile Crescent, they include sheep, goats, pigs, cattle, emmer wheat, einkorn wheat and barley. All of these species were domesticated and had an important role in the Fertile Crescent throughout the two millennia emergence of agrarian societies between 10000 and 8000 B.P. We can best understand the events of this period by first focusing on the developmental history of the individual species of animals and plants that were brought under d omestication, and then combining those individual histories into the more complex overall story in the emergence of the agriculture in the region (Smith, 51). However due to the confines of this paper we will take an in depth look at the animals domesticated in the Fertile Crescent. The story of the Fertile Crescent starts before the emergence of the hunter- gatherers, who were ravaging the forests and grass lands. By 10000 B.P. the beginning of the 2000 year period that would witness the development of agriculture, human societies had taken advantage of the post-Pleistocene proliferation of plant and animal resources, and the Fertile Crescent was inhabited by a diverse array of hunter-gatherer societies (Smith, 51). The Pleistocene era had ended with a much warmer climate that also brought a much moister climate to the area. This climate change was one that favored the wild annual cereal grasses (Sagan, 249). Also it allowed the sparse movement of hunter-gatherer groups to move in to the area. It was there that they discovered that a more sedentary lifestyle produced more of a surplus of food and then that of foraging. The Fertile Crescents environmental zones are keys to understanding the development of the domestications of the animals (and plants). There are three main environmental zones involved in the origin of cultivation in the Fertile Crescent. The eastern section of which comprises the foothills and margins of the Zagros Mountains (Maisels 133). The central or the north is mostly made up of the broad rolling grasslands. And lastly, the western section whose central axis is the important Levantine corridor and Jordan Valley (Smith, 51). There were many changes that occurred due to the domestication of animals (and plants). These changes were many times become genetic due to the consistent selection of the more adequately produced products. In wild grains, the axis or rachis is brittle, which allows the grain to reseed itself easily. Selection of the grains was at first an accidental by-product of harvesting, and later intentionally, the people selected grains in which the axis was tougher, allowing less grain to fall to the ground, thus raising yields (Sagan 247). They also selected plants that were more easily husked. The people used the same natural selection process when choosing livestock. They selected woolly animals from among wild sheep, which are not normally woolly, thus acquiring sheep better suited to lowland heat and from which to obtain wool. Fossil remains indicate that the domestication of the sheep and goat was accompanied by a decrease in the size of the animal. The animals domesticated in the Fertile Crescent were a key to the development of the humans in the area. The readily available source of meat aided in the functions of the brain, which led to the ability to think more complexly and creatively. The brain is fueled by protein therefore with more protein in the diet the mind began to develop more completely. Thus the importance of the domestication of the animals to the human race, without having to hunt for the meat they were getting a more readily available source of protein (Wilkinson 139). The Persian wild goat has been recognized as the ancestor to the first domesticated goat. The Persian wild goat tends to be found in the more rugged terrain. It is in the eastern section of the Fertile Crescent that we find the most evidence of goats being hunted for their meat. Specifically at the site of Ganj Dareh, which was excavated in 1970s, which found at the lowest level, which dates back to 9000 B.P. contained approximately 5000 identifiable goat bones (Old Goats). Brian Hesse of the University of Alabama at Birmingham studied these bones. He used a new analytical technique to try to piece together evidence of the domestication of goats. Hesse theorized that a domesticated herd should have two clear distinguishing characteristics: (1) a large percentage of animals slaughtered for meat late in their immaturity, when they had attained much of their adult size; (2) an adult breeding population in which females far outnumbered males (Smith, 60). Through complex measurements of t he bones discovered at Ganj Dareh, Hesse discovered that the males were being killed before they reached adult hood and the females overwhelmingly stood for most of the population. This stunning breakthrough specifies that an age and sex profile that closely agrees with that of a herd of domesticated goats managed to provide meat (Old Goats). Clear demographic evidence appears to indicate that goats were domesticated at Ganj Dareh as early as 9000 years ago. The increase of the proportions of goat bones among the animal remains is an indicator to the shift to goat herding. Wild Sheep were the second animal to be domesticated in the Fertile Crescent. The wild ancestor of domesticated sheep ranged throughout much of the Fertile Crescent. A large amount of evidence of wild sheep can be found in the central region (Sagon, 245). There is much data to indicate that the wild sheep was not an important prey in the areas of Levant. There is, however, evidence showing that the sheep were a prey in Jericho that date wild sheep back to 10000 to 9500 years ago (Wilkinson 149). The degree to which the hunter-gatherer societies in different parts of the Fertile Crescent relied on wild sheep for food parallels the animals abundance in their local environments 10000 to 8000 years ago. The wild sheep were most were most abundantly discovered in the central region. This is probably why around 8500 B.P. sheep were first domesticated in the central area of the Fertile Crescent. There, the land is better suited to the wild sheep thus they were a more common target for hunte rs in that area, leading to the domestication of the sheep. With the change from being wild to being domesticated, the sheep, according to the fossil record, got smaller due to the selection process of the humans tending to the animals. It is in the apex of the Fertile Crescent that sheep herding first became an important component of agricultural economies (Smith, 57). The pig was, as far as we know the third animal to be domesticated. Wild pigs were greatly hunted in the northern part of the central region. Facts have lead archeologist to date the bones of the wild pigs to 9000 B.P. The pigs continued to be a substantial part of the diet of the people in this northern area of the Fertile Crescent, even after the shift to the herding of sheep and goats (Sagan, 243). The site of Cayà ¶nà ¼ tends to be the marker for the earliest domesticated pig, in the vicinity of 8500 years ago. There have been some tentative theories that approximate the domestication of pigs to be closer to the date of 10000 B.P. (Smith, 67). It is Richard Redding who proposed this theory, which the bones of the pigs at Hallan Cemi, strongly represent the ages of bones of a possible herding community of pigs. However since we know nothing about the ages of the pigs that the hunters targeted we have no basis for making the claim that the pigs at Hallan Cemi were indeed domestic ated and herded. For now it remains unverified but the alluring prospect that pigs were domesticated much before the evidence now shows. Cattle were probably the last and least important of the four main animals that were domesticated in the Fertile Crescent. The ancestors of domesticate cattle were probably considered to be a dangerous pay due to the size of the animal. However, it was also a significantly large package of meat. The area in the Levant and Jordan Valley has dated wild cattle bones to approximately 9000 to 8000 years ago. Like the pigs the cattle had an exceptionally large geographical range and extended far beyond the Fertile Crescent. There has been clear documentation of a pattern that shows the reduction of size in the cattle between 8000 and 7000 B.P. While cattle may show to be of little importance to the region between 10000 and 8000 B.P. it later became the dominant species of the market (Smith, 56). Now that we have looked at the individual histories of the animals of four of the seven core domesticates of the Fertile Crescent we see many patterns are emerging. The four species share common lines of evidence that include; geographical range, increase in abundance, reduction in size and change in age/sex profiles (Smith, 67). This evidence has led to the indication that these histories were distinct and still follows the same indication of domestication. The goats were domesticated in the earliest portion of the period, at around 9000 B.P. Then the sheep, pigs and cattle soon followed after approximately 300 years after the domestication of the goats. After the domestication of animals (and plants) the small villages began becoming states, they were becoming more and more like a modern day civilization. The early stages of food production in the Middle East were marked by gradual transition from foraging to producing economies. Many changes were caused by the production and cultivation of food. Such changes include population increase, which caused the resulting migration and forced other areas to respond and begin their own cultivation of their resources. Also, there had been a gradual population increase; this was based on the native richness of the environment, which helped spur the spread of food production (Maisels, 140). On the other hand, in the Tigris-Euphrates alluvial plain, cultivation required irrigation, which began around 7000 B.P. and changed the world of farming. Irrigation allowed farming to spread away from the normal areas that were close to the riverbanks, by bringing the water away from the riverbanks the cult ivation began to strive. By 6000 B.P., irrigation systems had become far larger and more complex, and were associated with a new political system. This new establishment was based on central government, extreme contrasts of wealth, and social classes, the beginnings of the state (Wilkinson, 141). The written and archaeological record indicates that the early Mesopotamian states were city states (Sumer and Elam), ruled by a literate theocracy that managed virtually all major aspects of the economy, which was overwhelmingly agrarian. The theocracy was replaced by 4,500 B.P.; it was replaced by a secular, military monarchy, based upon an elaborate class system (Sagon, 300). Thus ended the revolution of modern humans in the world of cultivation we now knew use the animals (and plants) to our advantage. As time continues to slip by we find more and more ways to maximize the products we get from the domestication of animals (and cultivation of plants) (Sagan, 248). To sum everything up Southwest Asia was inhabited by small groups of hunter-gatherers. These groups, due to the climatic change, became more and more sedentary and begin to develop a source of food production. This production of food came from the domestication and cultivation of plants and animals. The herded animals provided a constant source of protein in their diet and allowed for the hunters to expend their energy in other areas of life. The cultivation of the plants allows for a reliable supply of grains in their diet. This made the people of this time able to support larger families, which turned into villages, cities, and ultimately states.

El Nino: Past, Present, and Future Essay -- Natural Science essays

El Nino: Past, Present, and Future El Nino is both an atmospheric and oceanic phenomenon affecting weather patterns all around the world. It is complemented by La Nina in a cycle that occurs approximately every 4 years, varying as much as every two years to every six years (Wang 1999, 3331). La Nina has almost the opposite effect, however differs in its strength and duration randomly, as does El Nino (Fedorov 2000, 1998). The cycle is often paraphrased as ENSO, standing for El Nino-Southern Oscillation (Flugel 1997, 3230). It is called this because the El Nino phenomenon is especially strong in the Southern Hemisphere, and has greater effects in areas of the pacific near the equator. Although ENSO is prominent in certain areas, it alters weather patterns all around the world. The El Nino pattern can be quite random with and approximate range of 2 to 6 years per cycle, and is a loaded gun believed to be triggered by western winds (Fedorov 2000, 1997). Many scientists are now looking to the past for answers, so the El N ino cycle can be predicted for the years to come. New discoveries have recently been made on El Nino's history, and possible future. Recent El Nino's and La Nina's have shown that there is no effect of the strength and duration of one on the other (Fedorov 2000, 1998). The last one in 1997 was among the strongest, next to the 1982 El Nino (Fedorov 1997). Although the ENSO is relatively unpredictable, some scientists believe it to be dependent upon the intensity of trade winds and the depth of the thermocline (Fedorov 2000, 1997). A thermocline is the layer of water that rests between the upper and lower layer water that are categorized by the water temperature (Fedorov 2000, 1997). For example, off the coast of Peru... ... could argue that these alterations from the normal ENSO cycle could be due to global warming. Right now more research is being conducted, which would be necessary to prove this theory. Only time can tell us whether we will need to beware of El Nino's wrath in the future or whether El Nino will be tapering out. Works Cited Fedorov, Alexey V. and S. George Philander. "Is El Nino Changing?". Science: vol. 288, June 16, 2000, pp. 1997-2001. Flugel, Moritz and Ping Chang. "Does the Predictability of ENSO Depend on the Seasonal Cycle?". Journal of Atmospheric Sciences: vol. 55, No. 21, pp. 3230-3243. Kerr, Richard A. "El Nino Grew Strong As Cultures Were Born". Science: vol. 283, Jan 22, 1999, pp. 467-468. Wang, Risheng and Bin Wang. "Phase Space Representation and Characteristics of El Nino-La Nina". Journal of Atmospheric Sciences: vol. 57, No. 19, pp. 3315-3333.

Life Transitions Essay

The mesosystem is the second structure within Bronfenbrenner’s social ecological model. Bowes & Hayes (1999) describe the mesosystem as the interrelationships between the indivuduals in the microsystem. There is direct collaboration between the individual and their relationships between their microsystem, their behaviors, expectations and values may differ with different experiences (Bowes, Grace & Hayes 2012). Regarding my life transition, the relationships between home and school within the microsystem became stressful, causing a negative impact on myself. Though when looking at figure 2, it is evident that after the stressors had ceased, a strong positive relationship occurred. This example highlights how a negative relationship between two aspects of the microsystem can dramatically change and become a powerful mesosytem agents to the individual effecting their development. Other indirect relationships that still effect the individual are seen in the exosystem. Garbarino (1992) describes the exosystem as a setting in which the individual is not directly involved with, but still has an effect on them through the meso or microsystem. In terms of my life transition, the relationship with my father and his workplace from figure 1 does not affect me directly, though due to this my relationship with my father lessened throughout my transition to University for his working hours increased causing us to spend less time together. The outer most relationships shown in figures 1 and 2 are known as the macrosystem. According to Bowes, Grace & Hayes (2012) the macro system is the broad societal or cultural contexts, cultural beliefs systems and values that are passed through our micro and mesosystems. An example of my personal transition is the government fundings for rural students to study away from home which allowed my financial transition to be much smoother. The last key structure to Bronfenbrenner’ social ecological model is known as the chronosystem. The chronosystem emphasizes the individuals changes or in any of the ecological contexts of development over time (Shaffer & Kipp 2006). An example of my personal transition that was undertaken was the sudden death of my father. It not only changed myself as an individual, but will  continue to affect my across my life span. Harms (2010) created another multidimensional approach within Bronfenbrenner’s model which takes the individuals inner world into consideration as well as their environment. Both Harms and Bronfenbrenner’s models display that though there are different dimensions of the models, they are both connected to each other in multiple ways. Gibsons theoretical framework is another example of a perspective in human development. Both Bronfenbrenner and Gibsons theories involved the concept of there being a strong relationship between the individual and their environment, both have aspects that are focused in change over time Tudge, Gray, & Hogan (1997). Developmental niche is another example of a model based upon different dimentions. Harkness & Super, (1994) define a developmental niche as two processes that are unique to an individual. It is based upon three basic components, the physical and social settings, culturally regulated customs and the psychology of the individual an example of a developmental niche would be the individual and their close friends as it was formed from mutual interests. In addition, the relationships between the structures of an individual’s microsystem can also impact in a similar way. Furthermore when discussing individual development, the concepts of resilience and vulnerability must be seen as factors. In terms of my personal transition, I would haveoriginally been seen as vulnerable, though due to increasing protective factors such as new relationships being formed from my microsystem level, I then would have been deemed resilient as I was able to thrive and adapt to the new change (Miller, Osbahr, Boyd, Thomalla, Bharwani, Ziervogel,†¦ & Nelson 2010). Life transitions occur in individuals lives due to a psychological or environmental change in a particular time in their life. My personal transition that is being discussed was the move from highschool and my home town, to moving to Bendigo and commence University studies. Bronfenbrenners ecological model was used to demonstrate the changed faced in terms of Microsystems, Mesosystems, Exosystem and Macrosystems. There are many other contributing factors that influence an individual and their life changes,  from other theories such as Harms model, as well as Gibsons, to the vulnerability or resilience of the individual. When taking all these aspects into my personal transition, it is clearly shown that my relationships, psychological state and environment have all ended as positive and thus becoming a positive transition. References: Berry, J. O. (1995). Families and deinstitutionalization: An application of Bronfenbrenner’s social ecology model. Journal of Counseling & Development,73(4), 379-383. Bowes, J, M., Hayes, A. (1999). Children, families and communities: contexts and consequences. Melbourne: Oxford University Press. Bowes, J., Grace, R,. & Hayes, A. (2012). The role of context in childrens development. Retrieved from: http://0-www.lib.latrobe.edu.au.alpha2.latrobe.edu.au/ereserve/copyright2014/4140321.pdf Bronfenbrenner, U. (1999). Environments in developmental perspective: Theoretical and operational models. Measuring environment across the life span: Emerging methods and concepts, 3-28. Bronfenbrenner, U. (1997). Ecological models of human development. Readings on the development of children, 1993, 37-43. Garbarino, J. (1992). Children and families in the social environment (2nd ed.). New York: Aldine de Gruyter. Harkness, S., & Super, C. M. (1994). The developmental niche: A theoretical framework for analyzing the household production of health. Social science & medicine, 38(2), 217-226. Harms, L (2010) Understanding human development: a multidimensional approach. Oxford University Press. Miller, F., Osbahr, H., Boyd, E., Thomalla, F., Bharwani, S., Ziervogel, G., †¦ & Nelson, D. (2010). Resilience and vulnerability: complementary or conflicting concepts?. Ecology & society, 15(3). Rosa, E. M., & Tudge, J. (2013). Urie bronfenbrenner’s theory of human development: Its evolution from ecology to bioecology. Journal of Family Theory & Review, 5(4), 243-258. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jftr.12022 Shaffer, D., & Kipp, K. (2006). Developmental psychology: Childhood and adolescence. Cengage Learning Swick, K. J., & Williams, R. D. (2006). An analysis of Bronfenbrenner’s bio-ecological perspective for early childhood educators: Implications for working with families experiencing stress. Early Childhood Education Journal, 33(5), 371-378. Tudge, J., Gray, J., & Hogan, D. M. (1997). Ecological perspectives in human development: A comparison of Gibson and Bronfenbrenner. Comparisons in human development: Understanding time and context, 72-105.

Anti-nuclear movements

Anti-nuclear movements During and after World War II Australia began supplying uranium for the US and UK's weapons programs, and this is how Australia got involved. British weapons tests in South Australia and Western Australia 1952-63 left a long line of health problems for Aborigines and armed service personnel, as well as significant environmental damage.“Let's face it. We don't want safe nuclear power plants. We want NO nuclear power” plants Ââ€"A spokesman for the Government Accountability Project, an offshoot of the Institute for Policy Studies, The American Spectator, Vol 18, No. 11, Nov. 1965The Atomic Energy Commission which was created in 1953 wanted to initiate nuclear power, to push towards nuclear weapons and to make plans to use “peaceful” nuclear explosives for civil engineering projects.Contesters of nuclear energy used the Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty of 1968 to strengthen the associations between the international export and expansion of nuclear power technologies and the production of nuclear weapons.Deutsch: Anti-AKW-Demonstration auf dem Bonner Hof...Eventually the coalition between US and Australian imperialism developed into a stronger one. In 1951, The ANZUS treaty was signed and the building of military bases at North West Cape, Pine Gap and Nurrungar constricted Australia to the US nuclear war-fighting machine in the 1960s and '70s.During the 1960's, due to the obvious weakening of the natural and inner-city environments the environmental movement grew. Some environmentalists saw nuclear energy as a way to decrease pollution even though the majority of the people who joined the movement by now had anti-nuclear attitudes, and all the way through that time the anti-nuclear movement was chosen within the environmental movement, although a huge portion of the people who identify themselves as environmentalists, favour nuclear energy.Since power production by nuclear plants was usually centralized and nuclear power has forever been a technolo gy which occupies specialists, some individuals...

News Media and Society essays

News Media and Society essays The media sources that I usually use consist of the television, radio, computer, and newspapers. The stations that I watch most are CNN, ESPN, MTV, and FOX news. The radio stations I listen to are mostly music oriented, but I occasionally listen to KDKA talk shows. I use my computer to get on the internet and I like to use MSNBC. The newspaper I currently receive is the Pittsburgh Post Gazette. When I want to learn about the local news I tend to listen to KDKA on the radio and read the Pittsburgh Post. For my national news I watch CNN and Fox news. I also log onto the internet where I will visit MSNBC frequently. I use the television probably the most to get my information because it is by far the most convenient. I am able to quickly get news and be entertained at the same time. A close second is the internet. As computers become quicker and easier to use, I am enjoying surfing the internet more for my information. I usually do not read magazines, because I do not have the time to read them. I currently subscribe to one magazine and that is Kiplingers. I am usually unable to read each monthly issue by the time I get the next one. I think I am influenced by the media by what channels and programs I watch and listen to. Most of the programs I like are on the informative side. The talk shows I listen to seem to support different views. I tend to side with some of the conservative approaches because some of the programs I watch support their views. A good example of how I am influenced and how I think others are influenced by what news programs they listen to happened the other day. I was watching a Fox news program on the appointment of the new Iraqi government that was replacing the current one assigned by the U.S. The report was very positive and talked about how this process was the first step for the Iraqis to take control back over their country. My overall feeling was that this was a good thing to happen. After li...

Behaviors, Actions and Communications of IKEA Term Paper

Behaviors, Actions and Communications of IKEA - Term Paper Example There is a great need in the modern society that enterprises were guided not only by the possibility to make more profit but also to fulfill the community’s expectations. It requires companies to be customer-centered and perform activities in accordance with the view of society’s development. In addition, companies should also be responsible to stakeholders with regard to the environment, equity, employment, health, and human rights and community development (Fulfilling Social Responsibility  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ Extract from Chinese Government Guidelines, 2013). Such an approach will help enterprises realize a balance between their growth, society and the environment. Moreover, its a requirement by the entire society that companies followed social activities since businesses have a significant impact on almost all aspects of the society and life of its people.   Edvardsson and Enquist (2006) state that the most fundamental and enduring asset for any company is the brand. However, value-based service brands are more important in building the good company’s image, where the enterprise tries to avoid aligning itself with such negative values as environmental pollution or cheap labor conditions. Instead, focusing on the attractive values such as community development and provision of healthy products help the company to create its positive image and contribute fully to the society (Edvardsson & Enquist, 2006). A Swedish multinational company Ikea that designs and sells  ready-to-assemble furniture, appliances, small motor vehicles, and home accessories, has built its values-based service brand by following the vision â€Å"To create a better everyday life for the many people† (The Ikea vision, n.d.).  The idea of its founder to create the home furnishings of good design and functionality and at a price that everyone could afford was the main â€Å"democratic idea† of the company.     Ã‚  

Weekly ass. #9 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

Weekly ass. #9 - Essay Example We wanted someone who could supply the linen to us at a considerably cheaper price. Therefore, we are offering the contract to a candidate who is supplying the linen at a price that is within our range. However, the good work that you have been doing is not forgettable and we are keeping your tender in our system. If at any time you feel that you can review the range at which you supply the materials to us, you will be among the first to be considered if there is any other opportunity for tenders. There are many other products that Anytown General Hospital needs and you can present your tender for supplies in any other department. We are starting classes for free disaster preparedness. We need suppliers for some of the products that we will be using; you can check on our website for details and present your tender if you would wish to bid. On behalf of Anytown General Hospital, I thank you for your time, interest, effort and continual cooperation when you worked with us. I wish you the best in your business proceedings, and if you have any questions regarding the same issue, please do not hesitate to contact us through